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推销学范文1
关键词：参与式教学；教学设计
一、当下大学生课堂普遍现状的问题及根源
当下大学生课堂普遍存在参与课堂互动积极性不够，注意力容易不集中，对课堂知识厌倦。这既影响了大学生对于学习乃至社会化技能的掌握，也影响了老师课堂教学的积极性，如若不积极调整，会形成循环性的负面影响。根源在于，第一，移动互联网的去中心化背景下导致学生对于权威主体相对保留，有别于传统学生在课堂上对于老师权威的服从，这对教学参与和教学秩序带来一定的挑战，而教学规则上有天然的约束性要求，这对矛盾导致学生处于主动避让状态。第二，从心理学角度，大学生普遍处于“补偿青春”年龄阶段，高考的竞争压力以及传统应试教育的填鸭式教学降低了大学生学习的探索欲望和好奇心，由此产生补偿心理和厌恶心理具有抗拮性。第三，从教学目的而言，教师和学生虽然从主观上需要淡化年龄、知识结构、阅历等的差异化，但这种差异化处理不好客观上会影响在教学互动中的互动质量和传授效果，既无法发挥教师在社会化引导的权威性，也促使课堂教学活动中老师无奈担任独角戏，挫伤老师后续教学活动的积极性。第四，手机提供了丰富的娱乐和新鲜资讯，相对于大学教学稳定的教学发挥，有天然的吸引力，自然产生了两者教学互动中不可避免的“注意力转移”。第五，普遍相对优越的成长环境和相对简单的社会阅历促使大学生在所学所用方面带有主观的个人偏好，没有意识到社会化技能对社会人的重要性，也就缺失了求学的动力。
二、本门课程教学中的制约因素
现代推销学实务是市场营销专业中偏实践技能型的学科，对场景化的教学提出相当高的要求，但现实有不可避免的制约因素。一是真实的推销实践是多样化，不同的场景在不同的阶段不同的人群都提出艺术而灵活处理的要求。而现实的教学环境虽有模拟推销环节，但还是受到教学设施的限制，无法大量提供简要有针对性的实践感知。二是当下普遍可以通过模拟推销环节来加强学生对理论的理解，但学生往往以学生心态和规范理解推销环节的种种处理思路，真实感和角色体验会降低，自然降低了“知行合一”的综合领悟效果。而社会真实的推销实践是个人需要具备综合的知识、能力和素质要求。这相应的会要求在模拟环境要求学生的基础能力例如社交能力、口头表达能力具备一定的基础。但是班级学生性格多样化，都有各自的一些暂时短板，例如怯场例如表达能力不顺畅等制约因素，这就影响了模拟环节的有序有效进行，特别是学生的参与意愿和动力。因此学生基础性能力偏差在实际教学环节中带有一定的挑战，这是推进教学预期效果的另一制约因素。
三、现代推销学实务教学设计思路
虽然现实教学不能做到尽善尽美，但是把握学生的真实背景、结合课程的性质和能力要求而知己知彼，有目的在教学环境中因势利导，创造条件，也一定程度上可以提高教学效果。对此，大致的设计思路如下：1.导入推销无处不在的观念。这种观念需要不断的重复和强调，但不是纯粹口头空洞的表达，而是多方面生活场景化的导入。例如推销不是工作才需要才会出现场景，也不是纯粹的有形产品和商业化服务，而是无处不在。而落脚点就在学生普遍的生活点滴以及媒体热门话题的引申，范围涉及学生密切相关的人际交往、玩乐、购物等环节。在场景化描述后做简单深入的原理再现，引导学生从日用而不只到意识的日用而知。努力提高课堂知识的趣味性，真实性，以及实用性感知。而这类话题必须以学生为中心，老师需要关注学生所偏好的兴趣和痛点，才能因为熟悉而有亲切感的参与动力。2.善于利用手机的信息优势。虽然手机成为当下影响课堂教学秩序的一大因素，学生注意力普遍不集中的根源。但是利弊全在老师主导和有效的管控。移动互联网带来丰富的信息资源，利用好可以有效的解决课程讲授过程中的案例缺乏问题，也能够做到人人参与。所以老师可以在备课环节中利用手机这一媒介作为信息和注意力引导，从而降低课堂案例背景资料的消化时间，提高课堂信息传播的效率和互动的积极性。诚然，手机案例的导入需要兼顾学生兴趣和课程的专业和约束，兼顾信息的实效性和趣味性，从而在符合学生追求新奇的背景下做有效的导引。3.善于设置合理生活化的任务。既然推销无处不在，这为学生通过身边行为设置任务安排带来了便利性。例如引导通过学生在线下线上的购物环节中，有目的的拍摄和记录。在不侵犯个人隐私的情况下，作为鲜活的案例放在课堂，让同学们广泛讨论，促进从生活中来而从生活中学习，老师适当结合自己专业优势和课堂教学目标做引导，提高学生的兴趣和讨论空间。合理生活化的任务不是局限于购物，目的是通过案例的再现和主人公意识的代入，带动学生广泛留意生活中的推销行为，也在讨论中让各方得到学习领悟。诚然，这需要教师需要提前合理的收取学生代表性的案例，以及在不断的改善中提高同学们提供案例的针对性和代表性。4.善于利用游戏化导入职业能力自学自助端口。现代推销实务对综合能力的要求很高，而课堂在提升相当有限，一是专业性板块内容多导入会打乱现有教学秩序，二是专业性得不到有效的保障。以提升学生口头表达能力为例，涉及演讲与口才的内容繁多，并且教学教法不容易有限展开，过分的输出还会导致学生在有限时间的课程上浅尝辄止。而学生课堂外的时间充裕，只要导入激励得当会带来学生自主学习的空间和动力。而目前互联网有相当富有参与性的内容板块，为自主自学提供了可能。在导入的过程中，通过适当的游戏化参与调动学生的好奇心，老师做好适当的解析影响工作，并保证在甄选和符合教学中的情境下，推送相应的端口给学生，让学生因自己偏好选择突破点和学习任务导向。规避学生在内容碎片化的网络信息时代无所适从的情景。用第二课堂联动课堂板块，丰富能力提升的内容和学习矩阵。
四、总结
现代推销实务的教学因教师和学生个性和现实环境差异，有不同的教学设计。而核心在于教师以学生为中心，以学生的兴趣摄入节点，善于利用互联网，合理引导和设置教学任务，推动学生自学和参与性教学，提高学生的知识和能力素质。
参考文献：
1.蒿丽萍.课程教学策略设计与行动路径[J].内蒙古电大学刊,2017(2):90-93.
推销学范文2
[关键词]知识的推销；独立思考；教学手段
[中图分类号]G640 [文献标识码]A [文章编号]1671-5918（2015）15-0014-02
引言
当代大学生一般是“90后”，追求新潮和时尚。在思想和行为方面存在着许多矛盾，如独立与依赖的并存；自信与脆弱的并存；个性生活与团队生活的并存；想要学习与学习目标不明确的并存。而传统的大学教学方法很难提起学生的学习兴趣，教学难以收到应有的效果。
高校不仅是学生们的求学之地，也是他们踏上社会的前站，高校教师不仅要授业解惑，更要教给学生做人的道理。由于师生间的距离及学校教学刻板的制度，在过去，学生会选择默默忍受，可如今的大学生却未必会买账，这样学生就很难真正融入到校园中，学习成了一种敷衍，要改变这种现状，我们就要把教学看作一个师生合作的舞台，而不是强迫学习的场所。把自己从一个从强塞知识的教师，变成一个满足学生的求知欲并传播爱的使者。这样引入“知识的推销”是很必要的。
一、知识的推销必须以“双赢思维”为基础
知识的推销是一门“双赢”的教学艺术，老师得到心理满足，而学生获得知识，知识的推销者欢喜，知识的获取者得意。在知识的推销成功的过程中体现出的就是一个典型的“双赢”模式。
老师在“双赢思维”中不仅表现在实际地为学生考虑，他们是不是真的需要你的知识，而且还运用于生活和学习中，让学生受益，从而自然完成知识的推销。如果从学生的角度考虑，只是一心让学生接受你要传授的知识，但思维的角度不同，没为学生考虑，总是潜意识地先从自己的角度出发，是为学生好，那么不管老师所说的话，再亲切、再谦虚，表现得再真诚，都难以消除“强迫”两字，所以，对一个优秀老师来说，“双赢思维”就意味着不只把学生看成一个单方向接受知识的个体，而是要真正地把他们看成需要理解、帮助的朋友，给予学生力所能及的帮助。
二、知识推销的初忠是为学生解惑
一切教学策略的运用，也旨在通过满足学生的求知欲望和解决学生的疑惑，老师应该意识到，教师是一种非常崇高的职业，老师的努力不应该放在如何去完成自己的教学任务，而是应该协助学生使他们的需求得到满足，帮助他们解惑，让学生的学习过程更加有趣和享受，然后自己再完成教学任务。总之，假如教学要有什么成功秘诀的话，就是设身处地替学生着想。我们不是单纯的教学，而是为教给学生解惑的方法。
而要帮助学生解决问题，首先要了解学生的问题及疑惑。只有知道学生需求之后，才能传授给学生满足其需求的知识，或使学生相信他们确实存在着对老师所传授知识的需要。那我们就要先研究学生的信息，也可以和学生对话与交流，在仔细倾听中发现学生关注的、在意的和所困扰的信息，我们就从所收集到的信息进行组织教学内容。要让学生接受自己的教学方案，还需要让他们意识到知识的重要性，发现了学生的忽视之后，通过提出激发需求的问题，将这些忽视明确化，从而引起学生的高度重视，以提高学生用所学知识解决相应问题的紧迫性。
三、知识推销的步骤
（一）用爱使学生敞开心扉
爱能使学生敞开心扉。虽然我在掌握了爱的艺术之前，只算一名普通教师。但我要让爱成为我最有效的方法，因为没有人能抵挡它的威力。所以我认为教师最重要的品质就是爱心。
为什么有些老师会惊讶学生会做出很多和他们不相符的事，老师和学生的距离是那么的大，让学生和老师间很陌生，有时学生对老师各种引导会有些抵触，会让老师有种感觉：老师指东，学生却要往西，追其原因就是老师没有很好的运用爱的力量，我们不能一味的对学生说教，而是要贴心的关爱和呵护，效果就会大不相同。我们如果改变一下观念，调整看问题的角度，就会看到不同的一片天。
老师的作用是帮助学生获取知识，只要有足够的爱心，就可以成为学生心中最有影响力的老师，让学生的负面的情绪与老师的爱接触后，瞬间就消融了。爱心是老师与学生沟通感情的桥梁。
（二）用教学激情感染学生的求知欲
实践证明，教师自身的激情对教学成功所起的作用占80%，而教学知识只占20%。很多新教师虽然没有太多的教学技巧，却能不断地创造不错的教学效果，最主要的原因就是他们对自己的工作充满激情。激情可使教师精力充沛，超常工作。
与其说成功取决于人的才能，不如说取决于人的激情。一个教师如果不能从每天的工作中找到乐趣，而是为生存才不得不从事教学工作，才不得不完成教师的职责，这样的教师的教学注定是要失败的。
因此教师如果没有了激情，即使掌握了良好的教学技巧也无法取得教学成功。如果用火柴和蜡烛来比喻教师和学生，则教师就像一根火柴，学生就像一根蜡烛。如果教师不先点燃自己，又怎么可能点燃和照亮别人呢？要成为一个充满激情的教师，或者重新拾回自己的激情，可以从以下几个方面去培养自己。
一是要有事业心，热爱自己的工作。激情是一种重要的力量。也许你的精力不是那么充沛，也许你的个性不是那么坚强，但是一旦你有了激情，并好好利用它，所有的这一切都有可以克服。一个人如果不热爱自己所从事的工作，即使他拥有非凡的形象和高学历，他也无法取得事业成功。
二是好奇心。做任何一件事情，当你有了好奇心的时候，也会推动激情。所以，遇到难解的事情，要不断地问自己“为什么”，用你对“为什么”的孜孜探究来保鲜自己的好奇心。
三是兴趣。即指你对你所从事的教学工作的兴趣。对于这一点，我们都深有感触。无论做任何一个工作，如果你对它本身没有什么兴趣，只是为了那份微薄的可以糊口的薪水，你就不会投入太多的精力和激情，也就很难在这个行业有所作为。
四是知识。如果没有知识，激情和能力不可能持久。如果不尽快地扩充大脑的“内存”，面对越来越多的竞争对手和科技的日新月异，你会变得不知所措。所以，千万不要停止学习。
五是自信。你必须相信你所做的都是正确的，作为一个教师，有信心不见得会成功，但没信心一定会输到底。沮丧者争取到沮丧的命运，乐观者争取到乐观的命运。不少的成功人士都暗示自己；我是第一号人物。这个暗示既是对自己的激励，也是自己的奋斗目标。但是，持久的自信心不是靠教师的盲目自大或他人的空洞说教与鼓励就能产生的。教师帮助自己建立持久的自信心，就是要了解自己的教学内容。这样才能对学生进行生动的讲授，进而影响学生对知识的接受及掌握知识的信心。
有这样一句名言：“人的意志可以发挥无限的力量，可以把梦想变为现实。”说的是一种信念、一种信心，可以把人的潜力挖掘出来。不放弃成功的信念，并坚持不懈地追求下去，才能真正达到目的。
六是目的。你的目的应当不只是赚钱。人生短短几十年，让自己的人生有一点不悔的追求？请你相信，在你追求事业和人生目标的过程中，金钱会根据你付出心血和努力的程度源源而来。
七是运用这样一个心理暗示：每天对自己说：“我要充满激情！”同时，让这个自我激励深入到潜意识中去。让这种潜意识激励你的行动，变消极为积极。
（三）用超人的勇气去开辟教学的新局面
教师要面对许多不同性格、不同教育背景的学生，而且还要面对被学生抵触的压力，这就要求教师必须具有常人不具有的勇气。如果不是勇气十足的话，就很难在这一行里干出名堂来。该如何鼓起勇气呢：有这样一段话：“敢于教学，敢于表现，相信自己，心有底气，要有勇气，永不泄气；丢掉面子，忘掉身份，丢掉胆怯，去掉杂念，一心一意，不怕失败。
推销学范文3
1“现代推销技巧”课程传统的教学方式存在的问题
11培养模式不能很好地适应社会的要求
《教育部关于全面提高高等教育质量的若干意见》中明确把“创新人才培养模式”作为提升人才培养水平、推进文化传承创新的重要举措。而社会经济的发展也要求高职院校要依据市场发展的规律，以就业为导向、以能力培?B为主线、以培养应用型人才为目标，创新高职院校人才的培养模式，使高职院校的人才培养与社会需求结合起来，为社会提供真正具备就业能力、实践能力、创新能力的高技能人才。目前，由于高职院校仍然使用学科体现加实践环节。来组合人才培养模式，导致人才培养目标定位是模糊的，教学模式仍以教材为主，用课堂教学方式、以理论讲授为重点。就会使理论与实践课之间的比例失调，达不到理想的教学效果。
教学计划缺乏弹性，有些学校的“现代推销技巧”课程的教学大纲与教学计划，在内容选取、开设时间上几年都没有变化，导致教学内容陈旧落后，缺少实用性。由于教材都是几年以前编写的，教材中的案例、实训，与现在社会的实际情况相差悬殊。大部分教材只讲究学科体系，采取工学结合培养模式来编写的教材更是少之又少，实用性不强。
12教学方法与学生特性不符
教学方法比较单一。大部分教师都是从学校毕业，就到学校任教，缺乏到企业实习的经历，一味地对理论知识进行灌输，和企业实际生产经营相关的课程联系得少，学生对课程缺少兴趣。即便采取案例、讨论、启发等教学方法，可是由于教师缺乏解决市场营销问题的实践经验，没有更好的理论与实践结合的经历，对案例教学的组织驾驭不够，课堂教学的吸引力低。目前高职院校的学生大都是性格活泼、好动。学生更看重的是老师的人格魅力及老师讲话的幽默度。老师在教学活动中，就要想尽各种办法来调动学生的积极性。如果还按照传统的教学方法，单向地灌输理论知识，而忽视了学生的拓展思维的训练，势必会导致“教”与“学”的不对接。没有开发出学生的潜质，降低了学生的学习兴趣。
13实训条件不充分
“现代推销技巧”课程是和消费者、市场、企业联系比较密切的一门课程，多数院校通过购买一些营销类教学软件，在校内进行实训，来提高学生的实践能力。但这种单纯的软件模拟教学，只能帮助学生了解营销活动过程，对学生的实际经验没有太大的帮助。社会上很多企业，由于一些特殊原因，在营销工作中学生无法接触实质性的内容，社会上虽然有很多校企合作、产学合作方面的实习基地，基本都是形同虚设。学生的实践需求满足不了，只能在课堂上进行简单模拟，使原本计划的实训内容无法完成，自然也就达不到预期的教学目的。
14考试方式不科学
对“现代推销技巧”课程的考核，很多学校采用的是闭卷考试为主、实训成绩为辅。考试内容主要是教师命题，试题是在教学大纲、考试大纲的要求下，主客观题型均匀分布，这种考核只能检验学生对理论知识的掌握情况，而学生职业的能力无从判断。而实训成绩，主要是根据学生在课堂过程中通过分组的形式，进行案例分析或者是课堂模拟演练，由老师给每位同学打分。这种考核方法不全面，导致学生上课不认真，对实训成绩也不在乎，无法提高自身的推销能力。
2“现代推销技巧”课程教学改革的主要内容
21教学内容要真实化，符合高职院校的培养理念
高职院校管理专业围绕职业能力培养，构建课程体系，将相应的职业资格标准的内容纳入教学之中。实现学生修完专业课程，便能形成适应某种职业需求的中、高级技术能力。同时，注重校企共同开发课程，突出课程的综合性、实用性。根据市场的需要，营销专业应减少一些纯理论性的内容，增加一些实践性、实验性的知识，达到使专业与社会的需求无缝对接。目前学校实行认知实习、课程实训、综合实训、顶岗实习四个环节有机结合，培养学生职业岗位能力，有效地促进了理论与实践的融合以及知识向能力的转化。
通过工学结合，可以使“现代推销技巧”课程与企业的实际联系起来，体现“以就业为导向，以能力培养为核心”的教育理念，满足企业和学生的需要。这种模式强调学校与企业互动，生产与学习相结合，突出培养学生的职业素质与职业能力，学生毕业后可直接上岗，企业满意度与社会认同度较高，较好地反映了高职院校人才培养规格的本质与特征，这是新形势下高等职业教育改革的重要方向，也是加快培养高技能人才的根本出路。
22教学方法要灵活多样
在教学方法上，努力实现融“教、学、做”为一体。所有带实践内容的课程授课地点全部安排在理实一体化教室。课堂上，教师采用任务驱动、角色扮演、分组教学等多种教学方法，调动学生学习积极性，提高了教学效果。让学生知道，学习过程不再是听讲过程，而是行动过程，老师给出任务，学生运用理论知识自己解决问题。可以将将全班学生分成若干个学习小组，每个小组选择一个真实的产品，来进行现场推销，让学生分别扮演顾客和推销人员，推销人员通过观察顾客，了解顾客的心理，展开有针对性的推销，同时顾客提出异议时，推销人员能够运用一些技巧及时地化解异议。学生是徒弟，老师是师傅，边学边做。把在实践中遇到的问题，带回到课堂上来解决，通过提问、答疑等方式，理论联系实际，提高学生分析、解决问题的能力。
23完善实训基地建设
首先，加大校内实训基地的建设，对现有的基地进行完善和拓展，保证学生在校内实训能够顺利开展。其次，要走出学校，多多和企业沟通，给学生争取更多的校外实训机会，让学生能够真正地“走出去”，在实际的工作岗位上得到锻炼。
24建立科学的教学考核方式
在期末考核方面，我们由原来的纯粹的闭卷转变为，闭卷、过程考核、实训相结合的方式。注重学生参与、体验、感受、实践、创新的过程。所以学生不光要掌握一些理论知识，更重要的是要学会自己动手、动脑，能自己实际解决问题。
3改革的初步成效及存在的主要问题
通过改革，取得了一些成效，比如，师生关系比以前更加和协了。老师不再只是讲授者，而是变成了师傅，在不同阶段承担着各种角色，使学生能够真正融入到课堂，增加了交流的机会。另外，学生的学习兴趣和综合能力也得到了提高。课堂气氛活跃了，学生积极地想表现自己，认真地完成每项任务。
推销学范文4
悲剧是一种起源于希腊的戏剧形式，长期以来，悲剧的主人公都为帝王或出身高贵的上流阶层。现代剧作家阿瑟•米勒凭借自己多年的经验与非凡的洞察力，提出了自己独特的现代悲剧观，他打破了传统悲剧的僵化模式，更加实用地继承与发展了悲剧形式。米勒独具建树的悲剧观，在其杰作《推销员之死》中得到了完美诠释。本文试图从悲剧理论出发研究米勒的悲剧观，再通过对其代表作《推销员之死》的分析，具体研究该剧中米勒独特悲剧观的体现。在《推销员之死》作家米勒继承并革新了传统的悲剧理论，认为普通人对生活有更深刻全面的理解，他们才是最适合的悲剧主人公。在该剧中，体现了米勒独特的悲剧观。推销员之死在戏剧结构，象征手法的应用与主人公的性格方面继承了传统悲剧，而在题材的选择既主人公的普通性，悲剧的成因及悲剧所体现的乐观思想方面发展则打破传统，发展了传统的悲剧理论。
关键词：阿瑟•米勒， 悲剧观，《推销员之死》，发展与继承
ABSTRACT
Tragedy is a drama genre originated in Greek. For a long time, it is an accepted rule that the tragic hero must be the kings, nobles or protagonists with high rank. However, Miller states his unique view of tragedy, which both inheritates and develops the theory of traditional tragedy. That is, Arthur Miller breaks the mold of the formulaic tragedies of previous era since Aristotle and redefines that the common people are as apt a subject for tragedies in its highest sense as kings were. Typically, Miller’s tragic view is presented in his masterpiece—Death of a Salesman. On the basis of the traditional theory of tragedy, this essay aims at pursuing Arthur Miller’s unique view of modern tragedy embodied in Death of Salesman, which is both the inheritance and the development of the traditional theory of tragedy.
In this play, Miller fully practices his unique view of tragedy. In such parts as the drama structure, the use of symbolism and the characteristics of the protagonist, Miller follows the theory of traditioanl tragedy. However, he breaks the archaic theory and makes great develoment to the theory of modern tragedy in the following aspects: the subject matter, the tragedy causes and the ending enlightment.
Keywords：Arthur Miller, Death of a Salesman, tragedy, succession and development
Contents
1.Introduction 1
2.Traditional View of Tragedy 2
3. Miller's View of Tragedy 3
3.1 The Great Influence of His Early Experience on the Forming of Miller’s Tragic View 3
3.2 Arthur Miller’s Unique View of Modern Tragedy 4
4. Miller’s Inheritance and Development of Traditional Tragic View in Death of a Salesman 5
4.1 Miller’s Inheritance of Traditional Tragic View 5
4.1.1 Arthur Miller’s Acceptance of Traditional Drama Structure 6
4.1.2 Traditional Symbolism Applied in Death of a Salesman 7
4.1.3 Characteristics of Traditional Tragic Protagonist Embodied in Death Of a Salesman 8
4.2 Miller’s Development of Traditional Tragedy in Death of a Salesman 9
4.2.1 Little Man as Protagonist in Death of a Salesman 9
4.2.2 The Personal and Social Elements Being the Causes of Tragedy 10
4.2.3 Optimistic View of Tragic Ending Reflected in Death of a Salesman 12
5.Conclusion 14
Acknowledgements 15
References 16
1. Introduction
Arthur Miller, a prominent figure in American theatre, is considered by audiences and scholars as one of America’s greatest playwrights with his plays lauded throughout the world. Owing to his unique view of tragedy which is best demonstrated in his magnum opus Death of a Salesman. Arthur Miller made great contribution to the development of the modern drama. Death of a Salesman relates the story of Willy Loman, a down-on-his-luck traveling salesman. In order to cope with his failures in life, he retreats to the past in his mind and seems to be losing touch with reality. He tries to relive the good times, but keeps coming up against things that went wrong. His family tries to help him by lying about their prospects, but when Loman loses his job to which he has devoted his lifetime, he becomes desperate. His depression is exacerbated by the guilt he feels from a past infidelity which has estranged him from his older son, Biff. Rather than accepting the fact that his life has been a failure and that Biff is not interested in big business, Loman decides to commit suicide hoping that the insurance money will help Biff become successful. The play ends with his family and only friend, Charley, grieving by his graveside. The play reflects Miller’s unique tragic view thoroughly. In order to get a better understanding of Miller’s unique views and advancement, a brief review of traditional tragedy is necessary.
2. Traditional View of Tragedy
Tragedy is a form of art based on human suffering that offers its audience pleasure. [1]67 While most cultures have developed forms that provoke this paradoxical response, tragedy refers to a specific tradition of drama that has played a unique and important role in the history of Western civilization. That tradition has been multiple and discontinuous, yet the term has often been used to invoke a powerful effect of cultural identity and historical continuity. Tragedy was Greek’s contribution to the human civilization. It has undergone the process of birth, development, enlighten and decline after it first came into being 2500 years ago. [2]
There once emerged two major Western tragedies in the history: Greek Tragedy and Elizabethan Tragedy. 4-5
Greek tragedy did not have a integrated theory until the appearance of Aristotle’s
Poetic. Aristotle’s description in Poetic provides insight into the theoretical basis of Greek tragedy. He raised almost all the elements such as the nature of the tragic protagonist, the emotional effect on the spectators, the tragic flaw and so on. In his masterpiece Poetic, he defined the tragic hero as one of noble birth, and prescribed principle that the tragic hero should suffer a major reversal in fortune due to his tragic flaw, and then learned from his fall to elevation. Aristotle considered the plot to be the core of the tragedy and character stood the next place. From his standpoint, the goal of a tragedy was not suffering but the knowledge that issued from it. In other words, a tragedy should invoke a catharsis in the audience. It was a purging of pity and fear which the tragedy built up in the audience. [5]49-60
In traditional tragedy the tragic hero are always in the relationships between human and God, human and fate. Their suffering and misfortune closely link with their high position and nobility.
3. Miller’s View of Tragedy
The discussion about genre has been complicated by the fact that the word “tragedy” has acquired the sanctity of an honorific title, so that critics are often hesitant to bestow the term on plays dealing with ordinary life or with the “common man”. Consequently, playwrights who have focus on the ordinary and the commonplace and especially those who have opposed the necessary fatalism and mysticism of classical tragedy, have been faced with problem of trying to reconcile contemporary ideas with traditional tragedy. [6]126Arthur Miller is among them; his works have become for many critics the quintessential modern tragedy.
3.1The Great Influence of His Early Experience on the Forming of Miller’s Tragic View
There is no doubt that a person’s views of world and concepts of life are greatly influenced by his experiences. 55Therefore, it is essential to learn about his experience and factors impacting him emotionally or psychologically for the sake of better understanding his view of tragedy.
Miller’s early circumstances were comfortable, but the crash of 1929 and the Depression were the major influence on his developing views of life. Actually, the 1929 crash impressed Miller greatly, “The hidden laws of fate lurked not only in the characters of people, but equally if not more imperiously in the world beyond the family parlor. Out there were the big gods, the ones whose disfavor could turn a proud and prosperous and dignified man into a frightened shell of a man whatever he thought of himself, and whatever he decided or didn’t decide to do.” [9]36
If the economic effects of the Depression had begun to awaken his social conscience, the social conditions in the Seventh Avenue district shocked him. The arrogance, cruelty, hardness and vulgarity of the buyers affected him in a way he never forgot. and finally became the material of his later famous play—Death of a Salesman. Miller’s experiences had a great influence on his view of tragedy. Owing to this, his unique view of tragedy was shaped.
3.2Arthur Miller’s Unique View of Modern Tragedy
Arthur Miller has been seriously concerned with the study of tragic mode, and his
view of tragedy mainly includes the following aspects.
First and foremost, unlike the traditional tragedy which emphasizes on the nobility of tragic protagonists, Miller believes that “the common man is as apt a subject for tragedy in his highest sense as kings were. On the face of this, it ought to be obvious in the light of modern psychiatry, which bases its analysis upon classic formulations, such as the Oedipus and Orestes complexes, for instance, which were enacted by royal beings, but which apply to everyone in similar situation.” [10]435Therefore, we can find obvious evident in his play. Miller creates many characters such as salesman, farmer, docker porter, clerk, policeman and prostitute in his works and most of them are very common people in society.
Second, trag ic flaw used to be thought as the main reason for the misfortune and sufferings of the protagonist, but in Miller’s eyes, the root of tragedy should consist in “man’s inherent unwillingness to remain passive in the face of what he conceives to be a challenge to his dignity, his image of his rightful status and social reality”. 453
Miller fully understands the interdependent relationship between the society and individuals: the society is made up of individuals and molds them. In other words, certain individuals are the mirror of the society. As a result, the fate of an individual must have certain universality and the vice versa.
Third, it is almost an established concept that tragedy is of necessity allied to pessimism, however, Miller stated that “in true tragedy implies more optimism in its author than does comedy, and that its final result ought to be the reinforcement of the onlooker’s brightest opinions of human animal. For if it is true to say that in essence the tragic hero is intent upon claiming his whole due as a personality and if this struggle must be total and without reservation, then it automatically demonstrates the indestructible will of man to achieve his humanity. The possibility of victory must be there.” [10]454
Miller’s tragic views are fully elucidated in Death of a Salesman. This essay will mainly focus the practice of Miller’s tragic view in Death of a Salesman.
4. Miller’s Inheritance and Development of Traditional Tragic View in Death of a Salesman
As a unique form of literature, drama has its own components and characteristics. When appreciated from aesthetic perspective, it is generally illustrated in four aspects: drama conflict, protagonist, structure, and end of the tragedy.
Death of a Salesman, as one of Miller’s masterpieces, fully embodies his views of tragedy. It is questionable whether Death of a Salesman is enough and of sufficient magnitude to be considered as high tragedy in Aristotelian sense. According to Aristotle, the action of tragedy to be serious must be profound both in its subject matter and in its spiritual discernment. [11]
4.1 Miller’s Inheritance of Traditional Tragic View
Asked which playwrights he admired most when he was young, Miller applied: “First the Greeks, for their magnificent form, the symmetry. Half the time I couldn’t really repeat the story because the characters in the etymology were completely blank to me. I had no background at that time to know really what was involved in these plays, but the architecture was clear. That form has never left me. I suppose it just got burned in.” [7]236
Over the years, Miller came to see that it was not only the form that he had learned from the traditional Greek, but also a sense of nature and function of drama itself. That is the reason why Miller has inherited certain aspects of traditional theory of tragedy. When it comes to its actual practice in Death of a Salesman, it is not difficult to find out that the in terms of drama structure, expression and tragic hero’s characteristics, Miller succeeded the traditional tragedy. [12]165-266
4.1.1 Arthur Miller’s Acceptance of Traditional Drama Structure
Classic tragedy emphasized that the elements of the structure: objects, events, the time and place should be highly concentrated. In order to adapt to the stage performance, the Greek tragedy always began with the climax or crisis and then disclosed the past by reviewing. [13]Such as the typical Greek tragedy Oedipus, the whole thing occurred only in half days, location had always been at the royal Palace. The stage showed the Oedipus king investigated the murderer, who killed the old king, and the events of the past four decades gradually revealed and when the final truth was disclosed, it also came along with the outbreak of tragedy. Like the Greek tragedy, the structure of Death of a Salesman is also concentrated. The play started with Willy back home:
From the right, Willy Loman, the salesman, enters carrying two large samples. The flute plays on. He hears but is not aware of it. He is past sixty years of age, dressed quietly. Even as he crosses the stage to the doorway of the house, his exhaustion is apparent. [14]5
Miller only intercepts the last day of life, basically against the backdrop of Willy’s home. Through reminiscing or actually Willy’s consciousness, Miller disclosures the past events and Willy’s depression, struggle and despair before suicide.
Like the traditional tragedy, its structure contains the beginning, development, climax, end, and sudden turning and discovery. Two clues coexist in the same story: external event development constitutes external structure. Willy returns home—making a plan—bankrupting—committing suicide; Psychological activity of recalling the past and imagination of his brother Ben constitutes the internal structure. Both the external and internal event pushes the plot to develop and supplement each other, successfully reflecting the hero’s character and the theme.
The structure of events and the nature of its form are the direct reflection of Willy’s way of thinking at this moment of his life. He lives in his own world full of contradictions in pursuing success of career, and in evaluating his position in the society.
Friction, collision, and tension between past and present are the heart of the play’s particular structure. [15]155
In Death of a Salesman, Miller not only describes what happened to Willy’s life in 24 hours, but also portrays Willy’s whole life. Just as Miller describes “it is certain private conversation in two acts and a requiem”.
4.1.2 Traditional Symbolism Applied in Death of a Salesman
It is a writing way of traditional tragedy to link the theme and structure of the drama by using symbolism such as analogy, metaphor and imagery, [18]Miller also follows this tradition in Death of a Salesman. A typical case in this play is Willy’s strange obsession with the condition of Linda’s stockings.
Linda There’s nothing to make up, dear. You’ re donning fine, better than—
Willy [noticing her mending] what’s that?
Linda Just mending my stockings. They’re so expensive—
Willy 86
The stockings foreshadow his later flashback to Biff’s discovery of him and The Woman in their Boston hotel room. The teenage Biff accuses Willy of giving away Linda’s stockings to the woman. Stockings assume a metaphorical weight as the symbol of betrayal and infidelity. New stockings are important for both Willy’s pride in being financially successful and thus able to support his family and for Willy’s ability to ease his guilt about, and suppress the memory of his betrayal of Linda and Biff.
Another symbol is seed.
Willy [After a slight pause] Tell me—is there a seed store in the neighborhood?
……
Stanley Seeds? You mean like to plant?
……
Willy 316
Seeds represent for Willy the opportunity to prove the worth of his labor, both as a salesman and a father. His desperate, nocturnal attempt to grow vegetables signifies his shame about barely being able to support the family and having nothing to leave his children when he passes. Willy feels that he has worked hard but fears that he will not be able to help his offspring any more than his own abandoning father helped him. The seeds also symbolize Willy’s sense of failure with Biff. Despite the formula of American Dream for success, which Willy considers infallible, Willy’s efforts to cultivate and nurture Biff went awry. Realizing that his all-American football star has turned into a lazy bum, Willy takes Biff’s failure and lack of ambition as a reflection of his abilities as a father.
4.1.3 Characteristics of Traditional Tragic Protagonist Embodied in Death of a Salesman
In the thirteenth chapter of Poetics, Aristotle pointed out that tragic figure is neither a good nor bad person, but between these two kinds. This kind of people does not have much of a virtue, nor it is very fair, they have flaws.
“The flaw, or the crack in the character, is really nothing –and need be nothing, but his inherent unwillingness to remain passive in the face of what he conceives to be a challenge to his dignity, his image of rightful status.” [10]494
Willy is in this category. Although frustrated in his business and earning little, Willy traveled a lot and does a lot of road business as a way of pursuing his dignity all his lifetime and a way of meeting the need of the family. For the purpose of being able to stay in the company, Willy even humbly asked a favor of his boss—Howard and willingly reduced his salary to a meager level.
Willy I tell ya why, Howard. The kids are all grown up, y’know. I don’t need much any more. If I could take home ---well, sixty- five dollars a week, I could swing.
……
Willy Howard, all I need to set my table is fifty dollars a week.
……
Willy If I had only forty dollars a week----that’s all I’d need. Forty dollars, Howard. [14]204-205
After Willy became jobless, he went to Charley, his neighbor and friend, to borrow fifty dollars every week and brought the money home to Linda, lying that the money was his salary with the intention of concealing the truth that he was fired. However, when he was offered a job, Willy rejected it out of his poor dignity and pride. For Willy was unwilling to admit that he was a failure.
Willy also tried his best to support his family on condition that he never lost his dignity. When he was finally reminded of the insurance money, he felt that his dignity as a “success” deserted him, so in despair he committed suicide.
On balance, to a certain extent, Willy’s character was similar to the traditional tragic hero.
4.2 Miller’s Development of Traditional Tragedy in Death of a Salesman
The big success and popularity of Death of Salesman is largely attributed to Miller’s development of traditional view of tragedy and his breakthrough of the formulaic mold of previous tragedies. The following aspects are regarded as the best interpretation of Miller’s development of traditional view of tragedy.
4.2.1 Little Man as Protagonist in Death of a Salesman
According to Aristotle, the tragic hero should be one of noble birth, but Miller looks at the problem from a practical rather than a theoretical angle. “……Tragedy has to grow and develop to meet the changing needs of the modern society”, he stresses.435
Willy is a common salesman and unsuccessful salesman in fact. He has devoted all his life and energy to pursue the material success and wants to hit big in business. He regards the success in career as the most important thing to gain his dignity and happiness, and gives it the premium over others in his life. However, he does not succeed in his career. In order to keep the daily life, he has to borrow money from his neighbor Charley. Although the company he has worked for nearly thirty-six years thrives, he becomes poorer and poorer, for he does not have a stable salary but only a commission like a jackaroo and at last he is fired. At home, he is neither an ideal father nor an ideal husband as well. As a father, with the faith in the supremacy of the material over spiritual, he transfers his blinded conviction in to his sons
Willy ……Because the man who makes an appearance in the business world, the man who creates personal interest, is the man who gets ahead, be liked and you will never want. [14]97
And when Biff stolen, Willy did not pointed out but even encourages his theft.
Charley Listen, if they steal any more from that building the watchman’ll put the cops on them.
Willy You shoulda seen the lumber they brought home last week. At last a dozen six-by-tens worth all kinds a money. [14]116
Which indirectly caused Biff’s peculiarity of stealing in his later life?
As a husband, Willy is a typical male chauvinist, and he had a love affair with another woman and betrayed his wife.
Besides, unlike the traditional tragedy such as Sophocles and Shakespeare dealt with noble minds and hearts which raised the actions of their heroes above the ordinary, the play also lacks sufficient magnitude for high tragedy. Willy’s aimless wanderings of mind and spirit, shrouds as they are in the murky mist of illusions can hardly be reckoned above the ordinary manner of things human. It is doubtful that Willy possesses the moral integrity or spiritual stature indicated by Aristotle.
4.2.2 The Personal and Social Elements Being the Causes of Tragedy
In the theory of the traditional tragedy misfortune was brought about not by vice or depravity, but for some error or frailty. The character failed because he tried to overcome his flaw but did not succeed.
However, in the causes of the fate of the tragic hero, Miller thinks there are many reasons contributing to the fate of the protagonist. Not only the personal sides but also the social sides, and both play essential role in the causes of tragic fate of the protagonist. In Death of a Salesman, the causes of the Willy’s tragic fate mainly include two parts: his own tragic flaws and the social elements.
It can not be denied that the hero himself plays an important role in it. In Willy’s tragic fate, his false values about the life and society are one of the main causes that lead to his tragic fate. Willy has looked for a right position and struggled his dignity with a desperate earnest all his life. Unfortunately, he failed to get security in the world, and got lost in his own illusion.
Willy attached his life to a faith which in the blessed country everyone has the chance to be successful through his effort. He regarded Dave Single man as the idol of his career,
Willy ……I met a salesman in the Parker House. His name was Dave Singleman--- And when I saw that, I realized that selling was the greatest career a man could want. [14]202
Willy always holds the view that he can succeed if he has the determination. He firmly sticks to the idea that the meaning of his life can only be derived from the society and willingly choses it as the standard to measure him. He assumes that success fell inevitably to the man with the right smiles, the best line, the most charm, the man who is well liked.
In addition, his characteristics contradicts, he is immature in his mind which is shown in his so called pride. When Willy was fired, he actually badly needed a job to support the family. But when his friend offered him a job Willy refused, because he was unwilling to admit that Charley was more excellent than him.
Willy I just can’t work for you, Charley.
Charley What’re you, jealous of me?
Willy I can’t work for you, that’ all, don’t ask me why.
Charley [angered, takes out more bills] You been jealous of me all your life … [14]248-251
“The false values, tightly woven into Willy’s personality, were destructive. His tragedy, to put it in other words, was the tragedy of man’s lost values in modern society, was the tragedy of man’s rebuilding values on illusion for defending his dignity.” [19]
In addition, Miller thinks “the wrong is the condition which suppresses man, perverts the flowing out of his love and creative instinct.” [10]435And it also lies Miller’s development of traditional tragic view.
As a social dramatist, Miller confirms the social forces as one of the most important causes of tragedy. Miller thinks that one must not conceive of man as a private entity and his social relations as something thrown at him. According to him, society is inside man and man is inside society. Raymond Williams thinks that in Miller “neither is the individual seen as a unit or the society as an aggregate, but both as belonging to a continuous and in real terms inseparable process.” [20]70
According to Miller, human is considered to be the product of forces outside the individual person. “The fate of seemingly insignificant individual must be the fate of the society, and the society’s conflicts must be the individual’s conflicts, man’s destruction in his effort to evaluate himself and to be evaluated justly, posits a wrong or an evil in his environment. Man is to achieve or to maintain the needed sense of personal dignity is the fault of society. ” [20]75
In Death of a Salesman, we can find a prototype of an alienated white collar man in the character of Willy Loman. It examines the cost of an alienated working class in the character of Willy. It shows that Willy is not only a victim of his personality, but also a victim of the flawed American society.
“There was respect, and comradeship, and gratitude in it. Today, it’s all cut and dried, and there’s no chance for bringing friendship to bear—or personality.” [14]204
Willy ……You can’t eat the orange and throw the peel away—a man is not a
pece of fruit. [14]206
As Willy said in the conversation with his boss Howard, the American society attaches more focus on the material. So when Willy was old and unable to travel around to do business, he was fired by the company relentlessly like the fruit. Willy’s tragic fate actually reveals the rules of the American society: one has to be completive; otherwise he will be left at the mercy of an unfortunate life. Willy’s tragic fate is typical illustration of common American. Under the law of the jungle, employees are only the tool of making money, once they are unable to make profit for their boss, they will inevitably await their doom.
4.2.3 Optimistic View of Tragic Ending Reflected in Death of a Salesman
According to Aristotle, the goal of tragedy is to evoke compassion to the tragic hero and the fear of the enigmatic destiny, so to realize elevation. Miller has developed it. In Tragedy and the Common Man, Miller points out that “The possibility of victory must be there in tragedy. ……In them(tragedy), and in them alone, must lies the belief—optimistic”. [10]451 He thinks that a modern dramatist should show not only defeat but also a free will.
So when Willy gradually realized that he had failed both as a salesman and as a father with his lifelong hard work and his expectation coming to nothing. He reminisced about the “good old days”, hoping to find him self and consolation. However, he was incapable of turning his whole life. Consequently he came to the idea that death can be the redemption and can help him to regain his lost dignity. Willy’s death at the end of the play is purposeful. In his opinion, he learned that “he is loved by his son and has been embraced and forgiven by him, Willy chose his death not as a escape but as a fulfillment.” 145
Willy actually put an end of his life with a joy, pride and a hope that his death will bring a fortune to the living and help his son to start his own business. He just lay down his life for the ones he loves. And this is where the optimistic view of the play lies. Meanwhile, Willy’s desperate commitment to his persistent illusion and dignity also give the audience the hope and thought instead of mere compassion and terror. Therefore, a moral triumph can be observed in the play. To Miller, “death is an assertion of bravery, it is just a way for the protagonist to live and die for it.” [21]147
Besides, Willy’s death also helped Biff to realize himself. Unlike Willy and Happy, Biff felt compelled to seek the truth about himself. While his father and brother were unable to accept the miserable reality of their respective lives, Biff acknowledged his failure and eventually managed to confront it. Biff bristled stiffly at self-deception. Biff saw himself as trapped in Willy’s grandiose fantasies. Intent on revealing the simple and humble truth behind Willy’s fantasy, Biff longed for the territory (the symbolically free West) obscured by his father’s blind faith in a skewed, materialist version of the American Dream. In the last action Biff said, “I know who I am, kid.”[14]369
This also gives the audience the hope that Biff has found his own way to go, he will not bound up with the blind faith which Willy has taught him. He is free and can live on his own view. From Biff’s arousal, we can assure that Biff will not wander any longer, he has nail down the direction of his life. We can even see an enterprising young man with a definite goal.
Both Willy’s death and Biff’s wakeup present Miller’s optimistic view in tragedy.
5. Conclusion
Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman is considered to be one of the best modern tragedies in the 20th century. According to Arthur Miller, “Tragedy is one of the most lasting categories of all literary genres. And tragedy should not dead to modern writers but to grow and develop to meet the changing needs of the modern society.”[10]345 His unique interpretations of tragedy have enriched the implications of drama, which can be considered to be his great contribution to the development of the modern drama.
Different from the traditional theories of tragedy, Miller practices his own views of tragedy in this play. Based on his experience and great insight, he succeeds in balancing his theory of tragedy between the succession and development of traditional tragedy theory.
His views are not limited to the studied or remembered models; his theory is well presented in his masterpiece. In this play, Miller practices his unique tragic view. In the term of the drama structure, use of symbolism and characteristics of the protagonist, Miller follows the traditional tragic theory. However, to a larger extent, he develops the traditional tragedy, which can be traced in the play: the subject matter, the cause of the tragic fate and the optimistic view showed at the end of the play all present Miller’s unique tragic view.
It is Miller’s unique tragic theory view that not only establishes Miller’s stature as one of the greatest giants in the drama but also makes his works full of significance.
Acknowledgements
My initial thanks go to my supervisor Kang Wenhong, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. She has spent a lot of her precious time reading and correcting my paper. Without her help and guidance, I could not have finished this dissertation.
I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books. They are Yan Yu xuan, Tan Cui ting, Hu Fang and so on.
My greatest personal debt is to my parents and my sister as well. They have cultivated a soul of sensitivity, hospitality, and honesty out of me, and offered a harbor of happiness and sweetness for me.
The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.
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[3] REHM, RUSH. Greek Tragic Theatre. Theatre production Studies [M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1992.
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[5] 亚里士多德, 罗念生译.诗学[M].上海:上海世界出版社，2005.
[6] TAXIDOU, OLGA. Tragedy, Modernity and Mourning [M].Edinburgh: Edinburg
UP, 2004.
[7] BARBER, CAROL. Work and Family in Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman, 2002.
[8] MARTINE, ROBERTA. The Theater Essays of Arthur Miller [M].New York: Viking Penguin Inc, 1978.
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[10] ARTHUR MILLER. The Tragedy and the Common Man Introduction to Collected plays [M].New York and London: Viking Penguin Inc, 1977.
[11]刘海平，朱雪峰. 英美戏剧:作品与评论[M].上海:上海外语教学出版社，2004.
[12] JAMES MARTINE. Critical Essay on Arthur Miller [J].Boston: G.K. Hall, 1979.
[13] 张祥和.《推销员之死》与传统悲剧之比较[J].福州大学学报(哲学版)，2001.
[14] 阿瑟•米勒 推销员之死[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1999.
[15] CHRISTOPHER BIGSBY. The Cambridge Companion to Arthur Miller [M]. Cambridge: The Press Syndicated of the University of Cambridge, 1997.
[16] ARTHUR MILLER, Time bends [J]. New York: Grove Press, 1987.
[17] 马可云. 一位普通美国人的悲剧原型—论《推销员之死》中威利•洛曼的悲剧形象[J].四川外语学院学报, 2005.
[18] 朱清. 《推销员之死》的象征艺术[J]. 南通师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版), 2001.
[19] 邓建华. 小人物的悲剧—浅析“美国梦”在《推销员之死》中的体现与幻灭[J].东北大学学报(社会科学版), 2005.
.Shanghai: Fudan University Press, 2006.
推销学范文5
关键词：推销与谈判；高职院校；教学模式改革
中图分类号：G71
《推销与谈判》是市场营销专业的实战应用型专业课，推销与谈判的能力也是该专业的同学们在走入社会后从事本专业必备的工作技能之一。在专业课堂的教学中，该门课程主要采用的是“理论+实践”的综合教学方式，但随着社会对就业人员要求的提高，能力导向教学方式的热力推崇，该课程的教学模式也应与时俱进进行改革，以更好满足社会要求和学生需求。
一、《推销与谈判》课程教学中存在的问题
1、教学效果与预期目标不匹配
《推销与谈判》课程主要培养的是学生与人沟通交流成功推销产品、正确的推销洽谈等方面的能力，但是最后在检验学生的学习实战中，其效果差强人意，与预期设定的目标差距较大。学生对基本知识点有粗略了解，但对专业知识点掌握程度却直线下降，应该具备的技能和能力只有少数同学能达到预期目标。
2、部分学生学习积极性不高
目前高职类学生普遍存在学习自主性不高、不愿主动有目的的提高自己综合素质、专业知识水平和技术能力较差的情况，面对学生的消极学习状态老师在教学过程中的积极性也相应受挫。本专业的学生即使对于类似《推销与谈判》这样的市场营销类专业课其学习积极性也不高，课堂上总是有人在走神或是人到心不到，完全缺乏学习的兴趣和积极性。
3、学生实际操作能力较差
学生真正能将课堂上学习到的知识用于实际的案例分析或是实战操作当中的个案较少，对知识的转移运用能力缺乏掌控力。有时候，对于刚说过的知识点，现场操作运用都难以找准要求点，更何况是对以前学过的知识或是对综合知识点的实际运用。
二、《推销与谈判》课程教学问题的原因分析
针对《推销与谈判》课堂教学中存在的相关问题，教师虽然在教材、教具和教学方法等方面不断采取方便学生学习的措施，但是学生改变的效果不明显，深究背后的原因主要在以下几点。
1、学生对于专业课重要性认识不够
在课堂学习中，学生对于专业课知识的学习往往流于个性选择化，认为有用的自己感兴趣的知识就认真学习。而有的同学认为今后自己不会走销售的工作岗位，因此对于《推销与谈判》课程的学习流于形式化，人来就不错了，不会去下意识的加强个人在推销与谈判课程的学习。另外，教师陈旧的上课方式也是学生们不喜欢上课的原因之一。
2、实践应用能力锻炼不够
由于教学规章制度、教学资源和设施的有限性，使得该门课程不能更多的采用现实销售演练和走入市场销售卖场当中的教学方式来增强学生们的实践应用能力。都只能是在课堂或者偶尔在校园里进行推销与谈判的实践能力演练，缺乏实践应用操作。
3、缺乏系统的与人才培养目标相适应的实训基地
高职教育是面向生产、建设、管理、服务一线培养高级技术技能型人才的教育，实训基地建设是培养目标得以实现的重要保证[1]。但是，目前我校在市场营销类实习实训基地建设方面投入力度稍微欠缺，现在缺乏在校内建设的仿真、模拟或完全等同于管理工作现场实际的实训基地，这需要投入大量资金，而目前学校力不从心，实践教学也就大打折扣。
三、《推销与谈判》教学模式改革方式
1、突出职业定向，培养学生能力为首要目标
从以上描述的情况分析，《推销与谈判》课程教学模式改革的目的首先应该明确的指向改变学生学习积极性和帮助学生建立职业目标、主动学习职业发展需要的知识与技能上。要培养和发展学生的判断力，锻炼学生的问题解决技能（尤其是“分析技能”与“决策技能”）[2]，其次才是学习和了解特定领域里的具体知识内容。忽略了改革的主要目的仅仅强调教学方法的改革或教学管理的改革就会演变成老师改来改去而学生无动于衷的现象[3]。
2、改革教学方法，综合开发学生职业兴趣
教师根据自己在教学、科研以及为企业提供管理咨询中的经验，创造有自己独特风格的教学方法结合本校学生的特殊性，一定要对现有教学方法进行的改良，可以适当的又选择性的将部分学生引入到企业或者社会中进行现实生活中的推销与谈判课程教学。要使学生具有职业性就必须在具体教学中强化学生的职业能力训练，进而综合开发学生的职业兴趣。
3、灵活考评方式，加强师生互动
可以使用传统的“理论+项目”实战的方式对学生在课堂上进行考核，也可以有针对的组织部分学生去市场上进行现实生活实际的推销与谈判，教师在旁边对其表现进行考核。当然，在整个《推销与谈判》的课程教学中，教师与学生的互动和相互之间的疑难解答沟通，都是贯穿整个课程教学中最为重要的一个内容，改变以前教师只管上课不管下课后的传统教学模式，一定要更多的加强师生间的互动，互相促进，学习好《推销与谈判》这门课程。
参考文献：
[1]张宇，杨志国.高职管理类课程教学存在的问题分析[J].中国电力教育，2008，12（128）：113-114.
推销学范文6
【关键词】信息技术；中职教育；推销课程；课程教学；应用研究
素质教育与教育现代化工程的深入发展，给中职推销课程教学手段提出了更高的要求，许多诸如多媒体课件和在线学习（E-learning）等现代信息技术均已开始应用于实际课堂教学中。而在中职推销课程中怎样充分运用现代化的信息技术。结合实际工作经验，笔者拟就我国信息技术在中职推销课程中的应用研究做出论述。
1 信息技术在中职推销课程教学中的应用思路
1.1 教学过程和环节设计方面
在教学过程和环节设计等方面，探索出以学生个别化自主学习和小组协同学习为主集体学习为辅的特色教学组织模式。合理安排自主学习、小组学习、集中辅导和作业以及实践等教学环节，尝试实行模块制与导学制教学。并注重在教学过程中与学生进行交流，充分尊重学生的课堂教的主体地位。
1.2 教学内容改革方面
在教学内容改革方面，通过讲解大量的国内外推销实例，增加对本学科的前沿知识的讲解，尝试运用案例式、开放式和链结式的教学方式。既增强了学生应用推销理论分析和解决问题的实际能力，又拓宽了中职学生的视野，开阔了学生的思路。
1.3 教学手段方面
以网络为核心，结合学校及学生实际条件，实行多种技术与媒体相结合的手段，通过小组讨论和网上BBS答疑开展多样化和交互式的学习活动，尝试实行插播式与讨论式的教学手段，使学生能便利、经济及有效地学习最新知识。
2 信息技术在中职推销课程教学中的具体应用措施
2.1设计适合中职推销课程教学改革的一体化方案，制定出能体现“少、精、宽和新”等特点的中职推销课程教学规划
根据中职推销课程的性质及其在该专业整个课程体系中的地位和作用，在分析学生实际学习需要基础上，尝试设计一种网络环境下的切合学校实际的关于课程教学的改革方案。
2.2 尝试实行案例式、开放式和链接式教学，注重加强开放，交互式学习活动，充分利用多种媒体教学资源及相关现代教育技术手段，进一步改革教学内容和教学方式
2.2.1 适当分开课堂讲授体系与教材体系，重在解答教材中的重点和难点问题；适当增加对本学科前沿知识和公司案例的讲授，将营销理论与现实实践紧密结合，适当进行“情境创设”，将讲评作业，社会调研结论与对学科知识的拓展学习紧密结合起来，打破传统的“封闭式”教学，实现精讲多练，学用结合，使学习者通过“同化”与“顺应”达到对新知识意义的建构。
2.2.2 积极尝试利用计算机投影设备，网上直播等现代化教学设施，开展多样化，交互学习活动。首先，在充分熟悉和掌握本课程多种媒体教学资源的种类与内容的基础上。其次，运用多媒体计算机设备进行课堂教学，尝试实行插播式和链接式教学。
2.2.3 积极采用QQ、E-mail和BBS等现代化教学设施，对学生的疑问进行解答和回复。建立多种与学生进行互动的方式，利用QQ、QQ群、E-mail和BBS等形式，在课下与学生进行互动，回答学生的课堂疑问，与学生对知识点进行讨论，开展多样化的交互式学习活动。
2.3 尝试实行导学式和讨论式教学，不断探索体现终身教育思想和建构主义教育理论的个人自主学习和小组学习的新形式
学校网络教育更加强调教师“导学”下的学生自主学习。因此，在教学中通过公布教师的通讯地址以及全校本课程的教师资源库信息，安排组织学生参加BBS讨论，网上答疑等教学活动，鼓励师生，生生之间的学习交流活动。建构主义的一个基本观点就是要使学生在教师的组织和引导下一起讨论和交流，形成一个共同的学习群体。因此，小组协作学习是网络教育的又一重要形式。
2.4 探索多样化形式，进一步加大对实践教学的探索
加强实践性教学是本课程的特点和本“试点项目”的要求。首先，我们明确设计了课内实践教学的内容与要求，并通过辅导课上的案例教学与小组讨论加以实施。使之不仅成为激发学生兴趣，训练学生提出和解决问题能力的有效途径，而且也成为实践性教学的重要环节之一。其次，通过完成“教学实践与社会调研”作业来达到增强学生应用与创新能力的目的。
2.5 实行分层交叉模块制，充分发挥网络教育各教学环节综合互补作用
结合具体实例简要介绍各模块在具体教学过程中是如何组织实施的。首先，在对课程教学的基础上，选出当前所学知识中的“主题”，然后再将其与不同的教学环节相结合形成不同的教学模块。其次，实现各教学模块既分层又交叉，并渗透于各教学环节之中。第一步是课前引导。旨在使学生明确本章的核心内容、学习宗旨与要点、自学方法建议与要求，有针对性地选择学习资源与方法。第二步是个别化自主学习。旨在培养学生根据需要决定学习内容、方式和进度的能力，使学生不仅了解、掌握本章的主要概念和基本原理，而且还要明确本章的重点和难点，提出没有理解和希望解决的问题反馈给学生。第三步是课堂面授学习。本环节包括面授课教学模块、音像课教学模块和网上直播课教学模块等。第四步是课外小组学习。重点是在自学过程的第二和第三阶段开展相互学习，讨论和参观学习活动，旨在交流信息，解决疑难问题，综合众人智慧，发挥群体合力以完成共性问题，以利于教学实践与社会调研活动的开展与完成。第五步是作业和实践。通过完成本单元课程作业并和实践考核模块交叉结合来培养学生的实际应用能力和创新思维能力。
3 结论
在中职推销课程教学过程中应用现代信息技术，应坚持学科和信息技术整合的观念，即以中职学生的实际需要为重心，重点突出“以学生及其自主学习为重心”的设计思想，探索出在知识经济时代大背景下能体现中职学生自主学习的学习模式。并以理论学习来指导实践，以教学实践来检验研究成果，进一步推动中职推销课程实践开展。
参考文献：
[1]李红. 探索现代信息技术在中职专业课中的运用[J]. 中国信息技术教育, 2010,(22).
[2] 黄建蓉. 现代信息技术应用于中职英语的教学创新[J]. 福建基础教育研究, 2010,(04) .
